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Part II then deals with the 'what' and 'how' components of formulation, detailing the substantive and process- oriented considerations concerning what goals are defined during formulation and how policy artefacts - such as policy instruments and their combinations in policy mixes and programmes - are created to address them.
Effective formulation seeks to integrate these various goals and means within policy mixes, so that their component elements reinforce rather than contradict each other (Briassoulis, 2005; Meijers, 2004).
this literature, Chapters 7 (Howlett and Rayner) and 8 (Howlett, Mukherjee and Rayner) delve deeper into the considerations of dealing with multi-tool policy mixes as well as enumerate and investigate the principles of effective design.
Where earlier work on formulation and design often assumed that policy-makers were operating with a constrained yet blank slate, modern thinking about policy design is more rooted in empirical experience that policy designers work in sce- narios with already established policy mixes and significant policy histories.
How 'unintended' policy mixes evolve, are created and limited by historical legacies, and are hampered due to internal inconsistencies are equally subjects of investigation in formula- tion studies as are the factors which lead to formulation and policy success (del Río, 2010; Grabosky, 1994; Gunningham et al.
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